the back of the tongue helps to produce __________ sounds.
/p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ are produced with the help of __________.
the sounds produced with the help of the upper teeth are called __________ sounds.
the study of speech organs is important to know the nature of __________.
the organs that take part in production of speech sounds are called __________
the positional variants of the same phoneme are known as __________.
in english, [l] and [ɫ] are allophones of the phoneme /l/ because they occur in ___________________, i.e., they never appear in the same sound contexts. [l] always occurs before vowels (as in the word leaf, look), while [ɫ] comes after vowels and before consonants (as in the word feel, cold).
using the diacritics provided by the ipa, _____________ transcription captures as many aspects of a specific pronunciation as possible and makes very subtle distinctions between sounds.
/p/ and /b/ can appear in initial position (as in pin and bin) and also in final position (as in rope and robe)．they are in phonemic contrast and said to form a _______________ because they occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.
like all languages in the world, english phonemes are also ided into vowels and consonants. the distinction between the two lies in the obstruction of __________.
the __________ pronunciation, or rp for short, is the instantly recognisable accent often described as ‘typically british’. it is defined in the concise oxford english dictionary as “the standard accent of english as spoken in the south of england”.
the vowel __________ can be described as low, front, and unrounded, but the feature “unrounded” is usually omitted because all front vowels in english are unrounded.
syllabically, although a diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds, and the tongue glides in the production of it, it is perceived as one phoneme, not two. thus, diphthongs are treated as having one __________ only.
words such as fire /faɪə/, flour /flaʊə/, or loyal /lɔɪəl/ are considered by the native english speakers to have only one syllable, whereas higher /haɪə/ and player /pleɪə/ are more likely to be heard with disyllabic realizations because the third vowel is a __________.
in the production of a consonant sound, the air stream from the lungs meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in the pronunciation of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs is obstructed in one way or another.
daniel jones worked out a set of cardinal vowels that students learning phonetics could be taught to produce, the aim of which is to give an approximate picture of the degree and direction of the tongue movement involved.
/i:/ and /ɪ/ are both high front vowels, but /i:/ is a bit lower and more forward than /ɪ/. in addition, /i:/ is tense in that the root of the tongue is more advanced than with /ɪ/, which is lax.
english diphthongs are ided into both falling diphthongs (the first vowel sound is pronounced longer, louder and stronger than the second one), and rising diphthongs (the second sound is produced longer and stronger than the first
if two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables — for example, in the english word re-elect (/ˌri:ˈɪlekt/) — the result is described as hiatus not as a diphthong.
consonants are formed by interrupting, narrowing or erting the airflow in a variety of ways. there are three ways of classifying the english consonant sounds: __________ of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing.
when the letter n come before g or k, it is pronounced as /ŋ/ as in strong, bang, thank, drink. however, when g is followed by e or i, the letter n is read as /n/ as in strange, stranger, arrange, longitude because the letter g is pronounced as __________.
rp has two allophonic variants of /r/. one is retroflex [r], and the other is tapor flap [ɾ]. in the pronunciation of retroflex [r], the tongue curls backward and retroflexes at the __________.
the /r/ may be replaced by an alveolar tap [ɾ] in intervocalic positions (e.g. very, sorry, tomorrow) and in word-final /r/ __________ with an initial vowel (e.g. far away).
generally speaking, plosive sounds undergo three stages: the closing stage, the compression stage and the __________ stage.
the manner of articulation refers to the way in which the airstream is obstructed. for example, with plosive sounds, the articulation acts in such a way that the air is temporarily trapped, and then suddenly released.
generally speaking, the place and the manner of articulation are the two common features of any languages except the voicing, which is language specific. for example, voicing is a distinctive feature of mandarin chinese, whereas aspiration is the distinctive feature of english.
plosives occur when the airstream is blocked or stopped completely before its release. they are also known as stops because they involve the complete blockage of the airstream.
the sound /ŋ/ remains unchanged at the word boundaries where it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound as in bring it (/brɪŋɪt/) and sing us a song (/sɪŋəs ə sɒŋ/). however, in the case of adjectives, the adding of the suffixes –eror -est to the comparative and superlative degree of the words longer and longest has changed the pronunciation of /ŋ/ into /ŋɡ/.
within the class of approximants, lateral /l/ and retroflex /r/ are further distinguished from semi-vowels /j/ and /w/. this is because /j/ and /w/ are made without a restriction to the airflow. they are phonetically like consonants but phonologically like vowels.
the general distribution of rp consonants is that all consonants can occur at the initial position as singletons except /n/, and that all consonants can appear at the final position as singletons except /h, w, j, r/.
the dark [ɫ] has two types of distributions. one is in word-final position, after vowel, as in call and real, and also after vowel, before consonant, such as cold and help. the other is syllabic [ɫ̩]: e.g. little and table.
both ‘clear’ [l] and ‘dark’ [ɫ] are formed with the tip of the tongue touching the teeth ridge. the only difference is that in the articulation of the ‘clear’ [l], the back part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate. in the articulation of the ‘dark’ [ɫ], the front part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate and slightly velarised, with a concave upper surface.
within the class of approximants, lateral /l/ and retroflex /r/ are further distinguished from semi-vowels /j/ and /w/. this is because /j/ and /w/ are made without a restriction to the airflow. they are phonetically like consonants but phonologically like vowels.
affricates occur when a complete closure is made somewhere in the mouth, and the soft palate is raised. air pressure increases behind the closure, and is then released more slowly than in plosives.
the sound /ŋ/ remains unchanged at the word boundaries where it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound as in bring it (/brɪŋɪt/) and sing us a song (/sɪŋəs ə sɒŋ/). however, in the case of adjectives, the adding of the suffixes –eror -est to the comparative and superlative degree of the words longer and longest has changed the pronunciation of /ŋ/ into /ŋɡ/.
inaudible (incomplete) release of plosives refers to the process of articulation of a plosive is not complete. it has only two stages, namely, the closure and the compression, without the release.
generally speaking, the place and the manner of articulation are the two common features of any languages except the voicing, which is language specific. for example, voicing is a distinctive feature of mandarin chinese, whereas aspiration is the distinctive feature of english.
english diphthongs are ided into both falling diphthongs (the first vowel sound is pronounced longer, louder and stronger than the second one), and rising diphthongs (the second sound is produced longer and stronger than the first
if two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different syllables — for example, in the english word re-elect (/ˌri:ˈɪlekt/) — the result is described as hiatus not as a diphthong.
文件名：学号 姓名 第4次朗读作业。 每人只能形成一个录音文件，一气呵成。
the minimum unit of speech is a syllable. syllables have a minimum of one (as in the word air /eə/), and a maximum of __________ structural parts (as in the word text /tekst/).
__________ consonants are consonants which form the nucleus of a syllable that does not contain a vowel.
in fact, the formation of syllabic consonants has much to do with the __________ principle, a term in auditory phonetics for the overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch, stress and duration.
the v and cv syllables are referred to as a/an __________ syllable because they end with a vowel.
statements of what sequences may or may not occur are called __________. the full description of such constraints is called phonotactics.
syllables are units of language, aller than a word but larger than a phoneme, and every language is said to have syllables.
phonological treatments of syllable structure usually call the first part of a syllable the onset, the middle part the nucleus and the end part the coda. the combination of nucleus and coda is called the rhyme.
a syllabic consonant is to be interpreted phonologically as /ə/ plus a consonant, but phonetically as the under-stroke [ ˌ ] combining vertical line below a consonant. thus, the word button is phonologically ['bʌtn̩] but phonetically /'bʌtən/.
not all english vowel phonemes can occur in the cv syllable pattern, but all can appear in the cvc pattern.
english has a complex system of consonant clusters, in which two or more consonants occur in sequence in onset or coda position.
6月14日之前上传作业，作为第5次朗读作业。 文件名：学号 姓名 第5次朗读作业。
__________ stress is the relative degree of force given to a certain syllable in a word of more than one syllable when it is pronounced in isolation, as if quoted from a dictionary.
stressed syllables bear four physiological properties: loudness, vowel duration, pitch and vowel __________.
__________, on the whole, do not have much effect on the placement of the base or root element.
there are two types of -ing noun combinations. for one type, the -ing form serves as a modifier of the noun and expresses the purpose of the noun; for instance, dining-room means the room for dining. in such circumstances, the word stress always falls on the ___________ element.
some words in english are shown in dictionaries as having three levels of stress: primary, secondary, unstressed or weak.
in every lexical word, and in some grammatical words, one syllable is identified as having primary stress, though in monosyllables the stress is not generally marked.
word stress is the framework upon which sentence stress and intonation contour is built.
the pitch movement is associated with secondary stress, but not with primary stress.
the major stress on two-syllable words is more likely to fall on the second syllable if the word is a noun or an adjective, and on the first syllable if the word is a verb.
stressed syllables bear four physiological properties: loudness, vowel duration, pitch and vowel __________.
in fact, the formation of syllabic consonants has much to do with the __________ principle, a term in auditory phonetics for the overall loudness of a sound relative to others of the same pitch, stress and duration.
in english, [l] and [ɫ] are allophones of the phoneme /l/ because they occur in ___________________, i.e., they never appear in the same sound contexts. [l] always occurs before vowels (as in the word leaf, look), while [ɫ] comes after vowels and before consonants (as in the word feel, cold).
the __________ pronunciation, or rp for short, is the instantly recognisable accent often described as ‘typically british’. it is defined in the concise oxford english dictionary as “the standard accent of english as spoken in the south of england”.
stress is being used in a more general way. it refers to the syllable that receives lexical stress. __________, on the other hand, is being used in a more specific way. it is a place where a tonal marker will fall on the lexically stressed syllable.
in more than three-syllable words, if the primary stress falls on the third syllable or later, the secondary stress are usually marked on one of the preceding syllables, for example, introduction / /ɪntrədʌkʃn/ and education /eʤukeɪʃn/.
word stress in english is not as predictable as it is in other languages, and therefore, the stress placement in english words is not rule-governe
phonological treatments of syllable structure usually call the first part of a syllable the onset, the middle part the nucleus and the end part the cod the combination of nucleus and coda is called the rhyme.
not all english vowel phonemes can occur in the cv syllable pattern, but all can appear in the cvc pattern.
in coda position, the maximum number of clusters is four. many clusters of two or three and virtually all cluster of four are the result of adding a plural /s, z/ or a past tense /t, d/ inflection to a stem ending in two or three consonants
the notion of rhythm comes from the unstressed syllables. word and sentence stress combine to create the rhythm of an english utterance.
just as in music, spoken english moves in regular, rhythmic beats from stress to stress – irrespective of how many unstressed syllables fall in between.
a rhythm group contains more than one stressed syllable, together with unstressed syllables clustering about it or none.
any unstressed syllables that may come before the first rhythm group do not belong to any stress-group. they are the strong beat and are read as quickly as possible.
chinese learners of english are likely to assign equal weight to each syllable, regardless of whether the syllable is stressed or unstressed.
the epenthesis (or insertion) of glides [j, w] occurs because they are the least marked epenthetic consonants in hiatus position.
a non-rhotic speaker will pronounce words like far as /fɑːr/, whereas a rhotic speaker does not pronounce [r] at all unless followed by a vowel.
for rhotic speakers [r] is pronounced just because far has an [r] in it, but for non-rhotic speakers [r] appears in far away because the first word ends with a vowel and the second word begins with a vowel, namely, the [r] links the two words together.
vowels which trigger [r]-insertion never trigger [j]-insertion or [w]-insertion. each glide has its own domain, although the domains exempt short stressed vowels /e, æ, ɒ, ʊ, ʌ/, which never occur word-finally in english.
generally speaking, the assimilation involves both vowels and consonants, particularly across word boundaries, but within words too.
english intonation has three systemic features: tonality, tonicity and tone.
a public speaker tends to pause less frequently to make their message clearer or more emphatic. by contrast, if the speaker is communicating urgency, he may contain more breaks.
no matter in spontaneous conversation or in material read aloud, the speaker must pause at a proper place where it makes sense because the intonation phrase boundary may act to differentiate between two possible meanings.
the nucleus, also known as nuclear syllable or tonic syllable, the syllable that bears the nuclear tone (a fall, rise, fall-rise or rise-fall).
accent has potentiality for stress. it involves how a prominence is supposed to be made, while stress refers to why a prominence is placed in a certain position of an intonation phrase.
pragmatic reasons for deaccenting the ‘last content word’ involve old or repeated information, namely, words express known or given information.
some words have little meaning of their own. their meaning can be inferred from certain context. such words are usually not accented even though they are the last content words.
when every part of an intonation phrase is brought into focus, we have narrow focus. if we focus only on one particular part, we have broad focus.
a fall may indicate definiteness, a rise may suggest some implications, and a fall-rise may imply incompleteness.
in sentence non-final position the difference in tone meaning between low rise, high rise, fall-rise or mid level tone varieties is not great. sometimes speakers just seem to ring the changes between them to avoid repetition.
if there are syllable following the nucleus (i.e. the tail), the rising pitch movement does not happen wholly on the nuclear syllable, as in the case of a fall. rather, the syllable or syllables of the tail will continue to move upwards from the pitch of the nuclear syllable.
the pitch movement for a fall, either high or low, is all in one direction, namely downwards. often there are syllables after the nucleus, a tail. after a falling nucleus, the tail is always high.
in a complex low level head, there is no upward movement in the head. the onset and all the remaining syllables of the head are uttered on a low pitch.
a simple head is one that contains only one stressed syllable, while a complex heads contains two or more stressed syllables.
the head does not necessarily consist of a complete word. they are usually spoken with a fairly low level pitch.
by definition, the prehead contains no stressed syllables, but occasionally, prehead may include a syllable that is lexically stressed but that the speaker chooses not to stress.
the prehead does not necessarily consist of a complete word. they are usually spoken with a fairly high level pitch.
the relative height of the pitch range will depend on the frequency of vibration of the vocal cords: the higher the frequency of vibration, the lower the pitch.
although every ip contains a nucleus, not all ips contain a prehead, head or a tail.
a complete ip, according to john wells (2006), consists of four constituent elements, namely, the prehead, the head, the nucleus and the tail.
the soft palate is also called __________.
/p/, /b/, /m/ and /w/ are produced with the help of __________.
the study of speech organs is important to know the nature of __________.
the positional variants of the same phoneme are known as __________.
using the diacritics provided by the ipa, _____________ transcription captures as many aspects of a specific pronunciation as possible and makes very subtle distinctions between sounds.
like all languages in the world, english phonemes are also ided into vowels and consonants. the distinction between the two lies in the obstruction of __________.
the __________ pronunciation, or rp for short, is the instantly recognisable accent often described as ‘typically british’. it is defined in the concise oxford english dictionary as “the standard accent of english as spoken in the south of england”.
the vowel __________ can be described as low, front, and unrounded, but the feature “unrounded” is usually omitted because all front vowels in english are unrounded.
syllabically, although a diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds, and the tongue glides in the production of it, it is perceived as one phoneme, not two. thus, diphthongs are treated as having one __________ only.
the duration of a diphthong is similar to that of a __________ vowel.
consonants are formed by interrupting, narrowing or erting the airflow in a variety of ways. there are three ways of classifying the english consonant sounds: __________ of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing.
when we discuss the english consonant, we begin with voicing first, then the place of articulation and lastly, the manner of articulation. the sound __________, for instance, is said briefly as voiceless palate-alveolar affricate.
__________ release refers to the air used to produce the stop is released through the nose rather than the mouth, namely, the velum is lowered before the stop closure is removed and the air pressure will be released through the nose instead of the mouth.
fricative sounds can be maintained as long as there is air in the lungs; for this reason they are known as __________.
rp has two allophonic variants of /r/. one is retroflex [r], and the other is tap or flap [ɾ]. in the pronunciation of retroflex [r], the tongue curls backward and retroflexes at the __________.
the minimum unit of speech is a syllable. syllables have a minimum of one (as in the word air /eə/), and a maximum of __________ structural parts (as in the word text /tekst/).
__________ consonants are consonants which form the nucleus of a syllable that does not contain a vowel.
the v and cv syllables are referred to as a/an __________ syllable because they end with a vowel.
with __________ clusters of three consonants, the first sound is always /s/, the second sound is a voiceless plosive /p, t, k/, and the third sound is one of the four approximants /l, r, w, j/.
there are cases where a consonant or a cluster could be either the coda to the first syllable of a word, or the onset to the second, we can say that it fulfils both functions, for instance, the /b/ in rabbit, the /st / in posting, the /n/ and /m/ in cinema. this is known as ___________.
in the production of a consonant sound, the air stream from the lungs meets no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in the pronunciation of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs is obstructed in one way or another.
daniel jones worked out a set of cardinal vowels that students learning phonetics could be taught to produce, the aim of which is to give an approximate picture of the degree and direction of the tongue movement involved.
tongue position indicates whether the front (as for /i:, ɪ, e, æ/), the central (as for /ɜ:, ə, ʌ/) or the back (as for /ɑ:, ɒ, ɔ:, ʊ, u:/) of the tongue is involved according to the horizontal movement of the tongue.
vowel /æ/ is distributed in syllable-initial, medial and final position (e.g. act /ækt/, hat /hæt/ and rapid /ræpɪd/, but not in word-final position.
english diphthongs are ided into both falling diphthongs (the first vowel sound is pronounced longer, louder and stronger than the second one), and rising diphthongs (the second sound is produced longer and stronger than the first).
the manner of articulation refers to the way in which the airstream is obstructed. for example, with plosive sounds, the articulation acts in such a way that the air is temporarily trapped, and then suddenly released.
plosives occur when the airstream is blocked or stopped completely before its release. they are also known as stops because they involve the complete blockage of the airstream.
the sound /ŋ/ remains unchanged at the word boundaries where it is followed by a word beginning with a vowel sound as in bring it (/brɪŋɪt/) and sing us a song (/sɪŋ əs ə sɒŋ/). however, in the case of adjectives, the adding of the suffixes –er or -est to the comparative and superlative degree of the words longer and longest has changed the pronunciation of /ŋ/ into /ŋɡ/.
within the class of approximants, lateral /l/ and retroflex /r/ are further distinguished from semi-vowels /j/ and /w/. this is because /j/ and /w/ are made without a restriction to the airflow. they are phonetically like consonants but phonologically like vowels.
the dark [ɫ] has two types of distributions. one is in word-final position, after vowel, as in call and real, and also after vowel, before consonant, such as cold and help. the other is syllabic [ɫ̩]: e.g. little and table.
syllables are units of language, aller than a word but larger than a phoneme, and every language is said to have syllables.
the english words consist of at least one syllable, and many words have two, three, four, or more syllables, and so do the chinese words.
phonological treatments of syllable structure usually call the first part of a syllable the onset, the middle part the nucleus and the end part the coda. the combination of nucleus and coda is called the rhyme.
a syllable may have one onset consonant, as /s/ in sit, tow onset consonants as /sp/ in spit, three onset consonants, as /spr/ in spring, or no onset consonants as in it /ɪt/.
in english, syllabic consonants occur when /l, n/ or /m, ŋ/ (standing as the peak of the syllable instead of the vowel) follows a homorganic (i.e., the same place of articulation) plosive (or occasionally a fricative).
a syllabic consonant is to be interpreted phonologically as /ə/ plus a consonant, but phonetically as the under-stroke [ ˌ ] combining vertical line below a consonant. thus, the word button is phonologically ['bʌtn̩] but phonetically /'bʌtən/.
not all english vowel phonemes can occur in the cv syllable pattern, but all can appear in the cvc pattern.
chinese has predominantly open syllables with only nasals /n/ and /ŋ/ permitted in syllable-final position. therefore english is a cv language, while chinese is a cvc language.
english has a complex system of consonant clusters, in which two or more consonants occur in sequence in onset or coda position.
in coda position, the maximum number of clusters is four. many clusters of two or three and virtually all cluster of four are the result of adding a plural /s, z/ or a past tense /t, d/ inflection to a stem ending in two or three consonants